INDONESIAN STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN PRONOUNCING ENGLISH DIPHTONGS

INDONESIAN STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN PRONOUNCING ENGLISH DIPHTONGS

 

SCANNING FOR SPECIFIC INFORMATION

SCANNING FOR SPECIFIC INFORMATION

What is scanning?

·         Scanning is a focused and rapid way of reading something to locate specific information

·         Like reading a phone list to find your friend’s phone number or scanning a menu to find the price of drinks

·         This is not the same as reading quickly to find the main idea (skimming)

Purpose:

·         To help students to read text quickly and accurately in order to find answers to specific questions

·         To help students find specific information in lists, manuals, advertisement, on a website, reading passages

Procedures:

Before scanning:

1.      Know your specific question and understand it.What are you scanning to find?Is there a KEY word you are looking for?

2.      Preview the text to see how information is arranged.  Where do you think the information you are looking for might be?

3.      Create a mental image of the fact, word or phrase you are looking for.Is it a number?  Then scan for a number.  Is it a name? Then scan for a name.

4.      Think of synonyms that might be used instead

5.      Look for clues the author might give you

6.      You could combine this with a herringbone graphic organizer or a list of items to scan for.

How to scan

1.      Move your eyes in a scanning pattern

2.      Use your finger to scan

3.      Don’t stop to read until your eyes see one of the key words you are looking for

4.      Look for ways the writer organized the reading—headings, numbers, signal words, words in bold or italics

5.      Use your finger to guide you down the page from line to line looking for your key words

Palomar College.  (n.d.). Power reading online.  Retrieved Jan. 20, 2102 from:  http://www.palomar.edu/reading/r110hybrid/Module%204/mod4.1scanning.htm

Beare, K.  (2012).  Reading comprehension skills—Scanning.  Retrieved from:  http://esl.about.com/od/readinglessonplan1/a/Reading-Comprehension-Skills-Scanning.htm

                 Mack, D. &Ojalvo, H.E.  (2009).  Skimming and scanning:  Using the Times to   develop reading              skills.  Retrieved from:  http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/09/skimming-and-scanning-using-the-times-to-develop-reading-skills/

English Club

English Club

Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code Mixing and Code Switching

Code Mixing

Wardhaugh (1986: 102) says that code is the particular dialect or language one chooses to use on any occasion, and a system for communication between two or more parties. Poedjosoedarmono (1978: 4) says that a code is a system of speech whose elements of language has special characteristic, and it is proper to the background of the speaker, the relation of the speaker to address and the situation.

Another linguistic phenomenon in bilingual or multilingual society is code mixing. Code switching and code mixing are terms that are used to call the dependence upon aspect of language. The difference of those terms that can be found is the dependence indicating characteristics. In the phenomenon of code mixing the dependent characteristics are indicated by the relationship between the function and role of language. The role means that who uses the language and function means what will be acquired by the speaker (Suwito in Sutana 1999: 17).

Mackey in Suwito (1985: 65) states that Code Mixing is one characteristic of language dependence. Then, He cities that the language dependence is marked by the presence of reciprocal relations between roles and language functions.  According to him, the roles refer to who uses language, whereas the language functions refer to what will bed achieve by speaker in his utterances. So if a speaker mixes two different codes on language in his utterances, then it should be asked first who he is.

In this manner, the specific characteristics of the speaker are, among others, his social background, level of education and solidarity of region. However, all of these specific characteristics will often color his code mixing. On the other hand, the language unction determines how far the languages used by speaker give an opportunity to mix codes. Finally, a speaker who masters many languages will have a greater opportunity to mix codes, because what a speaker of his utterance achieves is extremely determined by his language choice.

Code mixing usually occurs in bilingual or multilingual community or society and the function (meaning) of the languages can not be clearly separated. This code mixing is used when the conversant use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance (Wardhaugh, 1986: 103)

In code mixing the main code or basic code has its own function and meaning, other codes, however, are only the pieces, without function and meaning as a code (Chaer, 1995: 151). Thelander (In Chaer, 1995: 152) explains the definition of code mixing. He says that if in the single utterance the clauses and the phrases used are hybrid clause or hybrid phrases and each clause or phrase does not support the function of clause and phrase, it is called code mixing. The special character of code mixing is that, code mixing is used in informal situation. In the formal situation it may have no exact meaning in Indonesian language. In the written language code mixing is indicated by italic writing or underline form (Nababan, 1984: 32).

Another aspect of dependent relation of language in multilingual people is the phenomenon of code mixing in context of function of switch, the relevance of situation is the form of dependence identified from both sides of relationships between speakers and the function of language.

Code mixing has two features, namely dependency feature and the language or variant elements that insert in other language have no more function. Dependency feature marked by the relationship between the language rule and function. The role means who use the language and function means what will be reached by the speaker with his or her utterance. If the speaker mixes his or her code or language, then it must be asked the factors such as: who the speaker is: social background, the level of education, religion, etc. A speaker who masters many languages will have chance to mix code more than the other speakers who only master one language. But it does not mean that the speaker who masters many languages will always mix codes.

The second feature that the language or variant elements inserted in other language have no more function. It can be classified into two kinds. The first is inner code mixing that is originated from the native language with its all variations,  for instance Jawa Ngoko mixed with Jawa Krama- Inggil, wah baksone pun telas mas, pados liyane mawon. In this sentence, the speaker mixes jawa ngoko, liyane, with jawa krama inggil, pun, telas, mawon.

The second is outer code mixing that mix a foreign language with native language such as English language mixed with Indonesian language. Saya sedang tidak bisa berpikir, otakku blank. In this sentence, the speaker mixes English language, blank, with Indonesian language saya, sedang, tidak, bisa, berpikir, otakku. 

Code Switching

Sometimes, people consider that code switching and code mixing have the same meaning. But actually both of them are different. People in the bilingualism or multilingualism situation often change language or variety of languages. This situation depends on situation or the need for communication such as when a person uses a standard language when he meets his guest. When he knows that, actually, the guest is his old friend, the person switches his standard language into informal language. This phenomenon is called code switching. 

According to Crystal (1991: 59) code switching can be illustrated by the switch bilingual speaker may make (depending on who they are talking to or where they are) between standard and regional forms of English, between Welsh and English in parts of  Wales, or between occupational and domestics varieties.

Komarudin (1989: 59) says that code switching occurs in level of clauses and sentences. Code switching is general characteristics in bilingualism. Bilingual people often switch codes from one language to other language when they speak or write. 

Code switching is switching situation from one code to another (Suwito, 1985: 68). If a speaker firstly uses code A (for example Indonesian Language) and he changes his code to code B (Javanese Language), this situation is called code switching.

Code switching not only occurs in the form of language change but also may happen in the change of the variant of language. Hymes (in Chaer 1995: 142) says that code switching has become a common term for alternate us of two or more languages, varieties of language or even speech style. For example, when people switch one code, in example, grammatical code to casual code when the situation changes into informal situation.

Code switching happens in bilingual society. Code switching occurs when people use a particular code and suddenly change to another code. Apple (in Chaer 1995: 141) states code switching is the change of one code to another. Wardhaugh (1986: 103) also gives definition of code switching occurs when the language used, changes according to the situation in which the conversant find them selves. The speakers here switch one code to another code or they speak in one language to another language.

Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or dialect in conversation. Code-switching can occur between sentences (intersentential) or within a single sentence (intrasentential). Code-switching is now considered to be a normal and natural product of interaction between the bilingual (or multilingual) speaker’s two languages. Code-switching can be distinguished from other language contact phenomena such as loan translation (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transfer or interference.

The Challenge of English in Globalization Era

The Challenge of English in Globalization Era

Current Trends and Issues in English Language Education

Current Trends and Issues in English Language Education

Teaching An Early Age Child to Read

Teaching An Early Age Child to Read

Teaching a child to read is a fulfilling and educational process, both for the parent and child. Whether you home school your kids or just want to give your child a head-start, you can begin teaching your child to read at home. With the right tools and tactics, your child will be reading in no time. Here are some tips can be used to familiarize reading for children in the early stage.

1.     Read to your child on a regular basis. As with all things, it's difficult to learn anything without exposure to it. In order to get your child interested in reading, you should be reading to them on a regular basis. If you’re able, this should start when they are an infant and continue through their school years. Read books with stories they comprehend; at a young age this may lead you to read 3-4 small books a day.

• Books that combine other senses besides listening help your small child to comprehend the story as you read it. For example, read many books that have pictures, tactile pages, sounds, or have accompanying scents.
• Try reading them books that might slightly challenge their comprehension level but that have an interesting or engaging story.

2.     Ask interactive questions. Even before your child learns to read, they can learn reading comprehension. As you read stories to them aloud, ask them questions about the characters or the plot. For a toddler, these may be questions like “Do you see the dog? What is the dog’s name?”. The questions can escalate in difficulty as the reading level does.

• Help to teach your child critical thinking skills by asking open-ended questions about stories. You might not hear complex verbal responses until your child is four or five years old, but ask away and be patient.

3.     Put books to reachable place. It’s no good if you have books around, but located in places that your child can’t easily take them. Keep books low to the ground and in typical play-areas so that your child begins to associate them with play activities.

• Because your child may be touching and reading the books often, be sure to choose ones that have wipe-able pages and that aren’t incredibly sentimental. Pop-up books may not be the best option for young children.
• A fancy bookshelf may seem like the most attractive option, but until your child is in school focus on the utilitarian purposes of book storage.
• Set up a reading space next to the bookshelf. Set some beanbags, pillows, and comfy chairs around to sit in while reading. The top of the bookshelf can hold cups and snacks for having while reading.

4.     Set a good example. Show your child that reading is interesting and worthwhile by reading for yourself. Spend a minimum of ten minutes a day reading when your child is around, so that they see you enjoying the activity on your own. Even if you’re not an avid reader, find something to read - a magazine, the newspaper, or a cookbook all count. Soon they’ll become interested in reading on their own, simply as a result of seeing you doing it too.

• Include your child in your reading time. If you’re reading something child-friendly, tell them about what you’re reading. Accompany this by pointing to words on the page to help them connect the lines on the page with the sounds that form words.

5.     Get access to a library or bookstore. This can be done in two ways: create your own mini-library at home by collecting dozens of books in your child’s reading level, or make weekly trips to the local public library together to check out books. Having a variety of books on hand (especially with an older child) will add interest for reading, and help to incorporate more vocabulary into their knowledge base.

• That being said, don't turn down a request to re-read a favorite book just because it's already been read a dozen times.
• Going to bookstore and let your child to choose a favourite book as a reward.

6.     Start to make word-sound associations. Before you even start getting into the alphabet and sound specifics, help your child recognize that the lines on the page are directly correlated to the words you are speaking. As you read aloud to them, point to each word on the page at the same time you say it. This will help your child grasp the pattern of words/lines on the page relating to the words you speak in terms of length and sound.

7.     Avoid using flashcards. Some companies have advertised specialized flashcards to help babies, toddlers, and preschool age children to read. In general, flashcards are not the most useful or effective technique for teaching reading skills. Time spent reading stories with your child will be much more beneficial than flashcards. “Reading aloud to young children, particularly in an engaging manner, promotes emergent literacy and language development and supports the relationship between child and parent. In addition it can promote a love for reading which is even more important than improving specific literacy skills.”

Anxiety in Public Speaking and how to reduce it?

Anxiety in Public Speaking and how to reduce it?

Anxiety is defined as a state of uneasiness and apprehension or fear caused by the anticipation of something threatening. Public speaking anxiety is very common among both college students and the general population. Persons with public speaking anxiety often avoid anxiety-producing social or performance situations, but when unavoidable, these situations are endured with feeling of intense anxiety and distress. Also, anticipatory anxiety frequently occurs as an individual imagines the situation in advance of the actual experience (e.g., worrying each day about a presentation to be given in a class several weeks in the future). Although individuals with these types of anxious responses often recognize that their fear is excessive and/or unreasonable, they are unable, without assistance, to change their responses in these situations.

Individuals with public speaking anxiety most often experience a variety of symptoms in a public speaking situation, including palpitations, sweating, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, muscle tension, and confusion. (North & Rives; 2001)  Burnley et al.(1993) states that, “Approximately 85 percent of the general population report experiencing some level of anxiety about speaking in public.”  Rossi and Seiler (1989) indicate that, “Public speaking or stage fright has been investigated and studied since the mid-1930’s.

Many people who speak for a living, including actors, business people, and politicians, experience public speaking anxiety.  In fact, some of these experienced public speakers feel that a little nervousness before a performance or speaking engagement gives them the ability to perform at their best.  However, for some people the anxiety becomes so intense that it interferes with the ability to perform at all.

 In the case of students, this may lead to avoiding certain courses or even majors where oral presentations are required, never speaking in class, or deciding against certain careers because they would require occasional speaking before a group.  Students who are very anxious about public speaking in class may sometimes also avoid social events they would like to attend or may not talk to classmates they would like to get to know.   

Foreign language anxiety has been said by many researchers to influence language learning. Whereas facilitating anxiety produces positive effects on learners' performance, too much anxiety may cause a poor performance (Scovel, 1991). Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1991) have found that anxiety typically centers on listening and speaking. Speaking in class is most frequently difficult for anxious students even though they are pretty good at responding to a drill or giving prepared speeches. Anxious students may also have difficulties in discriminating sounds and structures or in catching their meaning.

Price (1991) investigated by asking questions about what made students most anxious in foreign language class. All of the subjects answered that having to speak a foreign language in front of other students resulted in the most anxiety. According Beatty, 1988; Beatty, Balfantz & Kuwabara, 1989; Beatty & Frieland, 1990 public speaking anxiety may stem from numerous sources, such as public speaking skills, fluency in a foreign language, emotional predispositions towards public speaking, and characteristics of the public speaking situation itself.

Fear of public speaking is a very common form of social phobia. Individuals who fear speaking in public may find their career choices limited and avenues for promotion closed to them, resulting in considerable personal distress, frustration, and depression.These individuals may underachieve at work or at school because of anxiety and often avoid speaking in classroom situations. In more severe cases, they may drop out of school rather than face a feared situation, such as a class with mandated oral reports that constitute a significant proportion of the final course grade.

A study indicate that the students experienced significantly less anxiety after they had been taught how to manage their distress, by means of affective strategies. Anxiety is typically understood as a physiological response. We can’t make it go away, but we can help it work for us instead of against us. According to results a great number of our students were able to change their perception of their anxiety level by the end of the course.

Education Profile in Developing Countries

Education Profile in Developing Countries

Distinction Between Acquiring First Language and Second Language Acquisition

Distinction Between Acquiring First Language and Second Language Acquisition

Acquiring the first language is not at the same way as the learners did in acquiring the second language, where the first language is relatively easier because the learners did it in well motivation and unconsciously built because the learners need the language urgently to communicate with the people around. On the other hand, we are being forced by the need of social communication. This factor is missing in acquiring the second language, because the learners think that only the “complement” no forces, no an urgent need and we did with relatively low motivation. Consciousness and unconsciousness also one of the different ways learners acquiring their first and second language, the infant did not know what actually they learn while the learner learn the second language in well monitor.  First language is acquired by the learners followed by the growth of physics and physicist and it is commonly done in informal environment. While the second language is learnt with the native language has already existed and commonly set in formal situation.

A.    Introduction

It has been continuous for thousand years, the human being use “the language” as the means of communication, as the media to share their idea what they think and what they feel to other people. Language has become an important aspect for the human being to interact among their social life. Language consists of so many complex systems, and it is begins to acquired by the infant in a very early age with a complex explanation how infant manage the task. .

How language is acquired has been explained by many psychologists by providing some theories about language acquisition such as Skinner from Behaviorism (Nurture) argued that language is acquired through a form of operant conditioning (Brown, 2000:34). The children give their language responses through the stimulus given that perform the reinforcement which enable the children to understand particular utterance, it is about contextual probability. In contrast, Chomsky’s theory from Nativism (Nature) stated that language is learned by special genetically programmed procedures that are unique to language learning (Chomsky, 1968:53). However, how to acquire the second language is not the same with how children acquire their first language that used to call “mother tongue”. The second language acquisition is relatively more restricted and difficult compared to the first language acquisition, it is caused by some different factors exist in acquiring the second language and it’s mainly come from the environment factor. Even, the environment factor determines whether the language that the learner acquired is the “good one” or “the bad one”.

Acquiring the second language is not at the same way like when the children acquire the first language “the mother tongue”. The first language acquisition begins from the basic one (when the children still empty of any language even word) and also this first language acquisition followed by the growth of physics and physicist that informally done with well motivation and unconsciously built because they need this language to communicate with the people around. On the other way around, in the second language acquisition the learner has mastered their first language and not followed by the growth of their physics and physicist and it is done formally with a lower motivation because they do not need this language to communicate to the people around them.

So, the second language must be acquired through some process that is done consciously and cannot be acquire automatically as the learner did in acquiring their first language.

A.  Theories in Language Acquisition

The development of language acquisition theories arose from the views of some psychologists about how language is acquired. Mainly, there are two different principles in psychologist views. There are Behaviorism and Nativism that lead to other psychologists to propose their view that is Interactionism.

1.    Behaviorism

This theory believes that language is acquired through a form of operant conditioning. The children will give their language responses through the stimulus given that perform the reinforcement which enable the children to understand particular utterance, where the environment act as the determiner. The language is a part of human behavior like another behavior. Therefore, the language must be acquired through the stimulus (Brown, 2000 : 34)

The language is developed through learning.  Researchers, such as B. F. Skinner has found that infants learn language through operant conditioning, reinforcement, imitation and observational learning. The infants acquire their language through the interaction with the environment by imitating what they heard and what they see. In this case, the important factor is how often that word is repeated so that the word or utterance will be reinforced in the children’s brain. 

2.    Nativism

In contrast to the first theory, Nativism believes that language cannot be acquired through learning. Reinforcement is also not necessary in producing the correct sentences in this theory. Because parents and caregivers will reinforce an incorrect sentence as often as a correct sentence.

Noam Chomsky a psychologist from Harvard University is behind this theory. He said that the first language skill come from the universal grammar that determine the basic form of natural language.  Every child was born into this earth with some competencies one of them is the competency to recognize the utterances (Brown, 2000: 21).  

Noam Chomsky comes up with the idea of a language organ, which is known as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).  The children were accomplished with language acquisition device (LAD) that contains of four competencies as follow (Brown, 2000: 22):

a)    Competency to distinguish between language sound and another sound

b)   Competency to organize the linguistics unit into some classes

c)    The competency about the language system, analyzing which one is correct and which one is incorrect.  

d)   The competency in using language system that is based on linguistics system development.

3.    Interactionism   

The Interactionist comes up with their belief that language development is a combination between biological and environmental influences.  Constructivism is when a child uses his innate biological influences along with the environmental stimulus to develop language.

B.  The Process in Acquiring First Language

The first language acquisition refers to the process in the children or infants’ brain when they acquire their “mother tongue”. The language acquisition commonly distinguished to the language learning. The acquisition refers to first language, while language learning refers to the second language (Chaer, 2003:167).

Chomsky stated that there are two different processes in acquiring the first language by the children. They are process of competence and process of performance.

1.    Competence process

This stage refers to the process in which the children begin to acquire the grammatical of their native language start from phonology, morphology, syntax, and then semantics. The grammatical awareness happens unconsciously in the children’s brain because every child was born with the competency that we call a language acquisition device (LAD). By using language acquisition device the infant are able to acquire the language in a relative short time with a complex grammatical. The infant can also distinguish which one is language sound and which one is not by using this LAD.

Howard Gardner in Campbel stated that the infant has accomplished with some intelligences one of those intelligence is language intelligence (Campbel, 2006: 3). However, this competency still needs some developments and guidance from the people around to perform this competency becomes a qualified performance in communication.

2.    Performance process

This stage refers to the process in which the children able to perform the language as a communication media that can be categorized into two levels. The first level is understanding where the children begin to observing, understanding and then give their perception to the words or sentence that they heard. The second level is producing where the children begin to give their expression and producing the sentence completely by themselves (Chaer 2003:167).

C.  The Stages in Acquiring First Language

The children are not automatically producing a complete sentence for their communication. In fact, the children’s first language development through some stages to make it equal to what the adult say or communicate. Those stages are chronologically discussed as follow:

1.    Phonology

In this stage the children try to produce a single word by saying “maamaa” “paapaa”. Even though, they do not know the meaning of that word (semantics), whether its word or what (Morphology) or a sentence (Syntactic). Djardjowidjojo (2005:245) said that the parents assume that the words “papaa” “maamaa” refer to them, despite we do not know what it’s really refers to. Perhaps, just the children articulation drill it can be.  But the main one on this stage is saying something or producing the sound (phonology). Therefore, the first stage in children’ first language is phonology.   

2.    Morphology

The next stage is the stage in which the children are able to perform some morphemes or words. Even begin to recognize and use derivation or inflexion, performing word added by affixes or suffixes. Around hundred words are memorized during this stage. However, grammatical correction commonly found as the reflection of the grammatical development. 

3.    Syntactic

In this stage the children are able asking a question, ignoring, and requesting something. Begin imitating, classifying the morphemes, and arranging the words together to perform the sentence (Alamsyah, 2007: 21). In this stage the children also begin to interpret a simple instruction even though with an error interpreting. For example, interpreting the notice “the fire is hot” but in fact they try to grasp it.

4.    Semantics

The children are able define and distinguish the meaning of the goods even sentences by comparing them into the size, form and characteristic of goods. For example, “the elephant is big” so everything that has the same size is also big.